HomerThe Odyssey The Odyssey is one of the two great epics of ancient Greece,the other being, of course, The Iliad. Of their author, Homer, we know almostnothing: he probably lived in the 8th century BC and it is almost certain thathe composed his verse orally, its literary form not being settled until the 6thcentury BC. By this time, Homer’s works had come to represent something likethe Bible in the Judaic-Christian tradition: they formed the artistic, moraland narrative basis of ancient Greek (and then Roman) culture. The two epicssurvived the Dark and Middle Ages, although they only became widely known againin the Renaissance period. Since then, they have been repeatedly translated. The Odyssey tells the story of the wanderings and eventualhomecoming of Odysseus, King of Ithaca, after the end of the Trojan War inwhich he had played such a conspicuous role — devising and carrying out, forinstance, the winning stratagem of the Wooden Horse. The story is given in acleverly varied form — partly consisting of flashbacks told by Odysseus himselfand partly straight third-person narration: Odysseus’ adventures are interwovenwith the fortunes of his wife Penelope (at home in Ithaca) and his sonTelemachus (who sets off to find Odysseus just as Odysseus is about to return). Throughout, human endeavor is mingled with divineintervention — for example, Odysseus enjoys the special favor of Pallas Athena,but must also contend with the wrath of Poseidon. Before he is able to reachhis native shore, Odysseus is drawn into affairs with goddesses (Calypso andCirce); must outwit monsters like the Cyclops Polyphemus, and successfullyevade the allure of the Sirens or the Lotus Eaters. The second half of the story concerns the way in whichOdysseus, disguised, retakes his own kingdom from the greedy suitors who besetPenelope: in this task, he is helped by Telemachus and two faithful retainers. What is the enduring appeal of The Odyssey? First, there isthe character of Odysseus himself. He is an interestingly complex figure inthat he is widely admired by his contemporaries, brave and resourceful; yet heis also wily, self-seeking and capable of superbly inventive falsehood when theoccasion requires. He is, above all, a survivor: he endures twenty years’ absencefrom home, and returns triumphantly to reclaim wife and kingdom — yet, asTiresias foretold, he will not settle down but will once more set forth ‘toseek a newer world…to sail beyond the sunset’ (as Tennyson romanticallyexpresses it). Odysseus, then, is the archetypal wanderer who speaks to thatpart of each of us that yearns for escape into the unknown. The poem itself, of course, is the original adventure story,with its wide range of character, incident and setting, but its structure iscleverly controlled and its language haunting in its loving stress on thefresh, the beautiful and the awe-inspiring. Homer writes as one who looks atthe world with a fresh wonder, where every dawn is rosy-fingered in its promiseof new places and new exploits. But The Odyssey is also full of sharp psychological insight— for instance, Homer’s depiction of Penelope’s pitiful devices for putting offthe suitors; and touches of telling pathos — Odysseus,disguised, is first recognized in his palace by his faithful dog Argus, who isonly able to wag his tail, unable to rise, and dies ‘as soon as he had lived tosee Odysseus in the twentieth year restored.’ Homer wrote in hexameters, while Cowper uses blank verse(unrhymed ambic pentameter) forhis version. Translations of Homer by Dryden, Pope and others had been madethroughout the Augustan period, generally using the rhymed couplet; butCowper’s version seems to me to combine almost ideally the dignified music ofMilton with the classical restraint and formality of 8th century verse. Inaddition, there is a hint of the 19th century at a time when Wordsworth andColeridge were already active. William Cowper, Translator William Cowper (1731-1800) was educated at Westminster andcalled to the bar in 1754. Bullied at school, he was subject to repeated boutsof severe depression, which effectively destroyed his legal career and made hisprivate life equally unsuccessful. This depression became strongly associatedwith his religious convictions, which made him acutely conscious of what he sawas his personal and moral inadequacy. He lived for some time with the ReverendMorley Unwin’s family at Huntingdon, and later with John Newton, theEvangelical minister with whom he wrote some of the best-loved hymns in theEnglish language (including ‘God moves in a mysterious way’). His best-knownworks are probably the discursive satires, such as Conversation and The Task,which display a sharp wit moderated by sensitive humanity and a love of thedomestic. His translation of The Odyssey appeared in 1791. Synopsis of The Odyssey Book 1: The Gods decide to grant Odysseus a safe return toIthaca. Telemachus is directed by Athena to seek his father abroad. Meanwhile,the suitors vie for Penelope’s hand. Book 2: Telemachus is refused a ship by the suitors, but ishelped to one by Athena and he leaves in secret. Book 3: Telemachus arrives at Pylus seeking news from Nestorof his father’s fate. Nestor refers him on to Menelaus. Book 4: Telemachus is welcomed by Menelaus and told that hisfather is rumored to be detained by Calypso. The suitors lie in wait to ambushTelemachus on his return. (This audiobook adaptation gives a prose summary of Books1-3 and the first part of Book 4. The verse text begins at Book 4, line 379 ofCowper’s version) Book 5: Hermes carries Zeus’ command to Calypso that sherelease Odysseus. Odysseus departs, but is pursued by terrible storms sent byPoseidon. Eventually, he is washed up on the shores of Phaeacia. Book 6: Odysseus is helped by Nausicaa, daughter ofPhaeacia’s king, Alcinous. Book 7: Odysseus is well received by Alcinous who promiseshim safe conduct home. Book 8: Odysseus is entertained by the Phaeacians.Questioned by Alcinous, Odysseus agrees to reveal his identity. Book 9: Odysseus begins the history of his adventures,including the tale of the Cyclops. Book 10: Continuing his narrative, Odysseus relates variousexploits. His entire fleet is destroyed by the Laestrygonians, save his ownship and crew, who are driven to the isle of Circe. Book 11: Odysseus tells of his voyage to Hades theunderworld, where he meets the spirits of Tiresias the prophet, his own mother,and Achilles. Book 12: The story continues with the adventures of theSirens, of Scylla and Charybdis, and of the destruction by shipwreck of hisremaining companions, who had eaten of the sacred cattle of the Sun. Odysseusarrives alone on Calypso’s island. Book 13: Odysseus finishes his narrative and is conveyed toIthaca, where Athena helps him. Odysseus, disguised, repairs to the cottage ofEumaeus, his faithful swineherd, while Athena goes to Sparta to recallTelemachus.Book 14: Odysseus is hospitably received by Eumaeus. Book 15: Telemachus takes leave of Menelaus and journeys toIthaca, evading the suitors’ ambush. He arrives at Eumaeus’ cottage also. Book 16: Eumaeus goes to Penelope to tell of her son’s safereturn, while Odysseus reveals himself to Telemachus. (Books 13-16 are given in the form of a prose summary. The verse resumes at the beginning of Book 17). Book 17: Telemachus speaks to his mother, and Odysseusarrives also in the palace, unrecognized by all save his old dog. Book 18: Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, defeats the beggarIrus in combat. The suitors all insult Odysseus. Book 19: Odysseus and his son remove the weapons from thehall. He relates a fictitious narrative of his adventures. Odysseus’ old nurserecognizes him, but he prevents her revelation of his identity. Book 20: A feast in the hall, where Athena afflicts thesuitors with a horrid frenzy and their destruction is prophesied. Book 21: Penelope proposes a contest with the bow, herselfthe prize. The suitors are unable to bend the bow, but Odysseus succeeds. Book 22: Odysseus, with the help of Telemachus, Eumaeus andPhiloetius, slays all the suitors. Book 23: Odysseus convinces Penelope of his identity andrelates the true story of his adventures. Book 24: Odysseus is reunited with his old father. Athenamakes peace between Odysseus and the aggrieved supporters of the suitors. Notes by Perry Keenlyside Anton Lesser Anton Lesser is one of Britain’s leading classical actors.He has played many of the principal Shakespearean roles for the RoyalShakespeare Company including Petruchio, Romeo and Richard III. His career hasalso encompassed contemporary drama, notably The Birthday Party by HaroldPinter. Appearances in major TV drama productions include The Oresteia, TheCherry Orchard, Troilus and Cressida and The Mill on the Floss.